Ancient DNA reveals mysterious origins of the Huns who sacked Rome

The origin of the Huns in fourth-century Europe has long been debated, but centuries-old DNA has revealed their diverse backgrounds.

Live ScienceKristina Killgrove

European Huns Origins Debate: Archaeological and Genomic Insights

Introduction

The debate about the origins of the European Huns continues to intrigue scholars and the public alike. These fierce warriors, known for their abrupt appearance in Europe around the 370s CE, left an indelible mark on history, yet their origins remain shrouded in mystery. Traditional lore often connects them with the earlier Xiongnu, a dominant steppe empire from Inner Asia. However, the centuries separating the dissolution of the Xiongnu Empire and the rise of Hunnic power in Europe created a puzzling gap in our historical understanding.

Recent groundbreaking genomic research has illuminated hidden narratives of the European Huns' origins, offering new perspectives on their connections to the Xiongnu and their impact on European populations. By combining archaeological evidence with genetic analysis, researchers have woven a rich tapestry of insights that challenges previous notions and reveals a more complex picture of these ancient nomadic conquerors.

Key Archaeological Sites in the Carpathian Basin

The Carpathian Basin, a historical hotbed during the Hun period, offers a fascinating glimpse into a mixed population that was both diverse and interconnected. The region witnessed a transformation that resulted in a new unified material culture under Hunnic rule, identifiable by distinctive artifacts and practices.

Budapest XIII, Népfürdő Street

This remarkable site, located opposite the ancient Roman fortress of Aquincum, revealed two notable burials:

• A richly adorned warrior, presumed to be a member of the Hunnic elite
• Grave goods including equestrian equipment, a lavish sword, and silver buckles
• Evidence of cultural blending between Roman and Hunnic traditions

The presence of these graves within Roman defenses illustrates the complex relationship between the conquering Huns and the existing Roman infrastructure.

Hajdúböszörmény - Vidi-zug

At this site, two Hunnic-period graves were found within an older kurgan (burial mound), with particularly revealing features:

• North-south orientation, contrasting with typical European east-west alignments
• A wooden coffin containing a high-status individual
• Golden buckles and other ornate artifacts
• Radiocarbon dating confirming Hunnic-period occupation

The burial's distinctive features point to ties with eastern steppe cultures, providing a tangible link between the European Huns and their potential Asian origins.

Pusztataskony

This solitary burial offered additional insights into Hunnic-period material culture:

• Crescent-shaped earrings showing stylistic connections to eastern traditions
• Amber beads suggesting trade connections
• Evidence of artificial cranial deformation (ACD), a practice associated with steppe nomads

These distinctive grave goods and cultural practices provide crucial evidence for tracing the origins and influences of the European Huns.

Árpás-Dombiföld

This site yielded individuals with genetic signatures indicating:

• Traces of Northeast Asian DNA
• Connections to earlier Xiongnu populations
• Evidence of cultural and genetic mixing with local European populations

The findings from Árpás-Dombiföld illustrate the genetic diversity present in Hunnic-period communities.

Material Culture and Distinctive Practices

Artificial Cranial Deformation

One of the most distinctive cultural markers associated with the Hunnic period is artificial cranial deformation (ACD), a practice where the skulls of infants were intentionally reshaped using bindings. This practice:

• Appears prominently in Hunnic-period burials across the Carpathian Basin
• Shows connections to similar practices in Central Asia
• Likely served as a marker of elite status or group identity
• Represents a transported cultural tradition that spread with the movement of peoples

The presence of this distinctive practice helps archaeologists identify connections between geographically distant populations.

Distinctive Grave Goods

The archaeological record reveals several distinctive artifact types associated with Hunnic influence:

• Sacrificial cauldrons: Large metal vessels used in community ceremonies, with clear parallels to those found in Xiongnu contexts
• Horse-related equipment: Saddle fittings, bridles, and other tools reflecting the importance of horsemanship
• Polyhedral earrings: Distinctive jewelry types showing eastern stylistic influences
• Elaborate brooches and combs: Items blending local craftsmanship with eastern designs

These artifacts demonstrate both the preservation of steppe traditions and the adaptation and incorporation of local European elements.

Burial Orientations and Practices

The orientation and structure of graves provide additional clues about cultural connections:

• North-south oriented burials contrast with the typical east-west Christian alignments of late Roman Europe
• Solitary graves with eastern-type features scattered across the basin suggest the presence of steppe individuals within the broader population
• Horse burials and partial animal remains reflect ritual practices with parallels in the Xiongnu empire

These distinctive burial customs maintained connections to steppe traditions despite geographic displacement.

Genomic Insights: Connecting East and West

The Trans-Eurasian Genetic Study

The recent research analyzed DNA from 370 individuals spanning Eurasia, with 35 genomes newly sequenced specifically for this study. This comprehensive genomic approach revealed:

• Direct genetic connections between some Hunnic-period individuals and the earlier Xiongnu elite
• High interregional genetic diversity among individuals in Hunnic-period burials
• Evidence of multiple waves of migration and admixture rather than a single population movement

The genetic data presents a complex picture of population movements and interactions across the Eurasian steppe over centuries.

Elite Lineages and Genetic Connections

One of the most striking findings is the evidence for elite lineages connecting the Xiongnu and Hunnic periods:

• Some high-status individuals in the Carpathian Basin share specific genetic markers with the Xiongnu elite
• These genetic connections suggest that elite networks may have played a crucial role in the westward movement of peoples and cultures
• The preservation of these lineages across vast distances and time periods indicates the importance of kinship in steppe political structures

The genetic evidence suggests that rather than a mass migration, the Hunnic expansion may have involved the movement of elite groups who then incorporated local populations.

Genetic Diversity in the Hunnic Period

The genomic analysis revealed remarkable diversity within Hunnic-period communities:

• Individuals with substantial Northeast Asian ancestry alongside those with primarily European genetic profiles
• Evidence of admixture occurring over generations, creating complex genetic signatures
• Regional variations in genetic composition, reflecting different migration routes and settlement patterns

This diversity challenges simplistic models of migration and conquest, suggesting a more nuanced process of population movement and cultural exchange.

The Middle Danube Culture During the Hunnic Period

Cultural Transformations

The Middle Danube region during the 5th century CE was a melting pot of cultures and genetic diversity. Archaeological evidence shows:

• Some settlements were abandoned during this turbulent period
• Others continued their cultural traditions despite Hunnic influence
• New cultural elements appeared, blending local and eastern traditions

These patterns reflect the complex societal changes occurring during the Hunnic period, as communities adapted to new political realities.

Social Structure and Elite Identity

The archaeological and genetic evidence together suggests a complex social structure during the Hunnic period:

• A ruling elite with connections to steppe traditions and possibly Xiongnu ancestry
• Local populations incorporated into the Hunnic political system
• Cultural markers like artificial cranial deformation possibly identifying individuals associated with the ruling group

This social complexity helps explain the rapid emergence and later dissolution of Hunnic power in Europe.

Conclusion: Reframing the Huns-Xiongnu Connection

The combination of archaeological evidence and genomic data has transformed our understanding of the European Huns and their connections to the earlier Xiongnu empire. Rather than a simple narrative of mass migration or cultural diffusion, we now see:

• Direct genetic connections between some Hunnic-period elites and the Xiongnu
• A complex process of population movement occurring over centuries
• The maintenance of certain cultural traditions alongside adaptation and incorporation of local elements
• Significant genetic diversity within Hunnic-period populations

This nuanced picture challenges previous historical models and demonstrates the value of integrating archaeological and genomic approaches. The European Huns emerge not as a monolithic group sweeping into Europe from the east, but as part of a complex, centuries-long process of interaction and movement across the Eurasian steppe—a process that connected east and west through networks of elite power, shared cultural practices, and genetic exchange.

The ongoing research into these connections continues to reveal new dimensions of this fascinating period, demonstrating that the story of the Huns is far more intricate and revealing than previously understood—a testament to the complex interweaving of human populations and cultures throughout history.