Historical Background of the Viking Age

Population genomics of the Viking world - Nature

Ancient DNA analyses reveal that Viking Age migrations from Scandinavia resulted in differential influxes of ancestry to different parts of Europe, and the increased presence of non-local ancestry within Scandinavia.

NatureAshot Margaryan

The Viking Age: Archaeological Discoveries and Genomic Insights

Introduction

The Viking Age, stretching from circa 800 to 1050 CE, represents a captivating period rich with the endeavors of Scandinavian seafarers. These Norse explorers were not just isolated marauders but crucial participants in cultural and economic exchanges that spanned continents. Recent archaeological discoveries combined with genomic research have dramatically enhanced our understanding of this dynamic era, revealing a complex picture of exploration, trade, conflict, and settlement.

The Vikings established extensive networks that reached across the North Atlantic, the British Isles, the Baltic region, and at times extended to the Mediterranean and the East. As they voyaged, they adopted and influenced the Christian religion and monetary systems they encountered, creating a legacy that shaped European history for centuries to come.

Historical Context and Origins

The Landscape Before the Viking Age

The groundwork for the Viking Age was laid well before the 8th century. Evidence shows that as early as the late Roman Period (200-375 CE), Scandinavian societies actively engaged with the Roman Empire. Archaeological findings document large-scale migrations into Western Europe, specifically marked by the Anglo-Saxon settlement in England by groups from what are now Northern Germany and Denmark.

Climate and Crisis: Catalysts for Change

A critical turning point occurred between 530–550 CE with the 'Late Antique Little Ice Age,' a global climatic downturn precipitated by volcanic activity. This period was marked by crisis—famine and the infamous Justinian Plague ravaged populations across Europe. These twin calamities potentially wrought demographic changes across Scandinavia, inviting new genetic influences as populations fluctuated and reformed.

Transition to the Viking Age

The 7th and 8th centuries witnessed transformations in material culture that heralded what historians term the 'Viking phenomenon.' This era coincided with advancements in seafaring technology—particularly the development of the keel and sail—that propelled Nordic explorers across vast distances. Trading hubs like Birka in Sweden and Staraja Ladoga in Russia began as humble settlements before flourishing as focal points of exchange, connecting Scandinavia to a broader world.

Key Archaeological Sites and Discoveries

Salme, Estonia: The Warrior Ships

One of the most remarkable discoveries came from Salme, Estonia, where two Early Viking Age ship burials were uncovered in 2008 and 2010. Dating to approximately 750 CE, these burial ships contained the remains of over 40 warriors, arranged in layers and accompanied by:

• Numerous weapons including swords and spears
• Gaming pieces suggesting leisure activities
• Shields and other martial equipment

DNA analysis revealed fascinating details about these warriors, including evidence that four of them were brothers, suggesting familial bands that fought and died together. The genetic evidence connects these individuals to regions in Scandinavia, illustrating the reach of Viking expeditions even in this early period.

Gotland, Sweden: Trade and Exchange

The cemetery at Kopparsvik on the island of Gotland, Sweden, has yielded graves dating from 900 to 1050 CE. These burials are notable for artifacts that demonstrate the islanders' expansive trade connections:

• Arabic and German coins
• Jewelry from various regions
• Items indicating wealth and status

Isotopic analyses indicate diets rich in terrestrial food rather than marine sources, while DNA results show genetic blending that reflects Gotland's position as a hub of international exchange.

Greenland: Norse Colonization

Norse settlements in Greenland, such as Sandnes, provide insight into Viking colonization efforts in the North Atlantic. These sites feature:

• Church ruins indicating Christian conversion
• Artifacts of daily life including iron knives
• Evidence of adaptation to harsh environmental conditions

Skeletal analyses and DNA studies suggest these settlers maintained their Norse identity and customs despite their remote location. Intriguingly, their genetic makeup shows no evidence of admixture with Inuit or Native American populations, despite their geographical proximity.

Faroe Islands: Isolated Communities

In the Faroe Islands, medieval graves at Sandur reveal a story of selective burial practices sustained by familial bonds. These islands present a unique genetic profile that maintained connections with Scandinavia while developing in relative isolation. The burial sites indicate elite status, suggesting these remote settlements were established by prominent Viking families.

Orkney and Scotland: Cultural Blending

Archaeological sites in the Orkney Islands and along the Scottish coast reveal complex cultural interactions. DNA evidence suggests that some individuals traditionally identified as Vikings may have been locals who adopted Norse lifestyles and customs. This genetic evidence illuminates how incoming Norse settlers blended with local Pictish populations, creating hybrid cultural identities.

Viking Burial Practices and DNA Retrieval

Evolution of Burial Customs

Viking burial practices show significant variation across different regions of Scandinavia and changed over time:

• Cremation predominated in the early Viking Age
• Inhumation (burial of intact bodies) became more common later
• Christian burial practices gradually replaced pagan customs

This diversity of burial methods has provided researchers with various contexts for DNA sampling and analysis.

Sources of Ancient DNA

The project analyzed DNA from 442 ancient individuals from over 80 archaeological sites, spanning territories from Greenland to Ireland and throughout Scandinavia. Particularly valuable sources included:

• Well-preserved petrous bones (the dense bone that houses the inner ear)
• Teeth, which often preserve DNA better than other skeletal elements
• Occasionally, artifacts with preserved biological material

These samples ranged from the Bronze Age through to the early modern period, providing a chronological framework for understanding genetic changes over time.

Individual Stories from DNA Evidence

Family Connections

One of the most compelling aspects of genomic research is the ability to identify family relationships among ancient individuals:

• The four brothers buried together in the Salme ship, suggesting warrior bands formed along kinship lines
• Family groupings in Faroese burial sites near churches, indicating the significance of lineage in Viking society
• In Iceland, graves of a father, mother, and son provide poignant evidence of family units among settlers

These genetic connections humanize the Viking Age, allowing us to see beyond the broad strokes of history to the intimate relationships that bound individuals together.

Evidence of Mobility and Migration

DNA analysis has revealed surprising patterns of movement and migration:

• Vikings from Denmark primarily expanded into England
• Norwegian Vikings mainly traveled to Ireland, Iceland, and Greenland
• Swedish Vikings largely moved eastward into the Baltic countries and Russia

These patterns confirm some historical accounts while challenging others, providing a more nuanced understanding of Viking expansion.

Genetic Exchange and Diversity

Perhaps most surprisingly, the genomic evidence reveals the Vikings as genetically diverse people who readily integrated with local populations:

• In the British Isles, many individuals who lived Viking lifestyles carried local genetic signatures
• In Scandinavia itself, there is evidence of genetic influence from Southern and Eastern Europe before the Viking Age began
• The genetic diversity increased throughout the Viking Age, reflecting their extensive networks of trade and exchange

This genetic evidence contradicts the popular image of Vikings as a homogeneous group and instead portrays them as cosmopolitan people engaged in constant cultural and genetic exchange.

Conclusion: Redefining the Viking Age

The combination of archaeological discoveries and genomic research has transformed our understanding of the Viking Age. Far from being a simple narrative of raiding and pillaging, this era emerges as a complex period of human interaction, cultural exchange, and adaptation.

The DNA extracted from Viking burial sites tells a story of a people who were simultaneously fierce warriors, skilled traders, ambitious colonizers, and adaptable settlers. Their genetic legacy reveals both their distinctive Scandinavian origins and their willingness to integrate with the diverse populations they encountered in their travels.

As research continues, the picture of Viking society becomes increasingly nuanced, allowing us to see these ancient seafarers not as one-dimensional characters from legend, but as real human beings whose lives, families, and journeys have left an indelible mark on European history and genetics.