Enduring Stability Amidst European Migration: Iron Age Europe
†These authors contributed equally to this work. ✉Corresponding author.
Population Structure in Europe Since the Iron Age: Archaeological and Bioarchaeological Insights
Introduction
The enduring population structure of Europe since the Iron Age has been unveiled through centuries of archaeological and genetic investigations, offering a mosaic of history teeming with ancient stories and discoveries. These archaeological sites are not mere repositories of bones and artifacts but pages from the storybook of humanity. Every item retrieved, from pottery shards to iron tools, is integral to piecing together the vast jigsaw of human history, highlighting not only migration and war but also the quiet tales of daily life and individual stories.
High Mobility in Ancient Populations
Recent archaeological findings illuminate a history of ancient populations that were far from static. This network of sites paints a picture of bustling trade routes, military postings, and cultural exchanges that kept the ancient world in constant motion. The evidence suggests a Europe where movement and connection were as dynamic and intricate as a Renaissance painting.
Notable Archaeological Sites
Roman North Africa
Sitifis, Necropole Orientale (Algeria)
The Eastern Necropolis of Sitifis, nestled in what's now modern-day Sétif, Algeria, tells the story of a town established in 97 A.D. under Emperor Nerva as a Roman colony. It later rose to provincial prominence under Emperor Diocletian, becoming the capital of Mauretania Sitifensis by 293 AD.
Three phases of burial practices were unearthed here:
- Early burial phase
- Period of cremation
- Return to burial practices
The necropolis contains 352 graves with 228 identified remains. Grave goods and burial types offer insights into the lives of the Numidian natives (Berbers) and their transition during Roman times. Bioarchaeological studies are piecing together the population history of this significant site, revealing how Roman influences blended with indigenous customs.
Eastern Europe and the Caucasus
Beniamin (Armenia)
This necropolis in Armenia's Shirak province holds secrets from the Achaemenid era through the Hellenistic period, offering a glimpse into the life of tribes that intermingled with others from far and wide. With 350 excavated burials dating from the 5th century BC to the 3rd century AD, the site is rich with artifacts including metalwork and pottery.
The skeletal analysis reveals fascinating demographic patterns:
- Scythian affinities in female remains
- Middle Eastern traits among males
- Evidence of continuous migration and cultural confluence
These grave goods suggest wide-ranging cultural interactions spanning multiple regions and cultural spheres.
Central Europe
Klosterneuburg (Austria)
The Roman military presence is strongly felt at Klosterneuburg, an auxiliary castle site along the Danube frontier in Pannonia. From here, the Romans kept watch over vital transport routes and Danube crossings. The necropolis reveals fascinating insights into the lives of Roman soldiers and local inhabitants, with graves spanning from the 2nd to the 5th century CE.
The excavations revealed:
- Intricately constructed graves, including chambers made of stone or bricks
- A blend of Roman and Germanic influences in burial practices
- Notable "soldier's graves" with distinctive belt fittings linking individuals to military ranks found throughout the Empire
These findings illustrate how military affiliations and civilian life were intertwined along the Roman frontier.
Hassleben (Germany)
The Germanic necropolis in Hassleben is famed for its "Princess of Haßleben" burial, displaying the prominence of Germanic nobility in the 3rd century CE. The site showcases:
- Lavish grave goods
- Numerous Roman provincial imports
- Evidence of extensive trade networks
These discoveries demonstrate significant contact across the Roman and 'Barbarian' worlds, revealing how wealth and prestige goods circulated beyond the Empire's borders.
The Balkans
Viminacium (Serbia)
Viminacium was a significant Roman military and civilian settlement, with its necropolis (Kod Koraba site) revealing a fascinating array of burial customs and grave goods from the 1st to the 3rd centuries CE. The site includes:
- Various burial types from simple pit burials to elaborate constructions
- Coin offerings and ceramic goods
- A remarkable mausoleum complex where high-status individuals were laid to rest
These findings illustrate the social stratification and cultural practices of this provincial Roman capital.
Beli Manastir (Croatia)
Excavations at Beli Manastir highlighted a Roman layer featuring intriguing infrastructure like brick furnaces and evidence of burials. A notable find was a child's burial constructed from roof tiles with a ceramic vessel. This discovery within a multi-period site adds to our understanding of the Roman way of life in the region.
Gardun (Tilurium, Croatia)
The strategic Roman fortress of Tilurium, located near Trilj, tells a captivating story of military presence, power shifts, and eventual civilian transformation after the military's departure. The anthropological findings within the fortress offer a glimpse into the lives of the Roman military and their transformation during late antiquity.
Western Europe
Sarrebourg (France)
The Marxberg Necropolis of Pons Saravi stands as a testament to Late Antiquity burial traditions along the Roman roads. With 88 excavated graves, the discoveries reveal profound family connections and social structures unfolding at this junction of Roman pathways in eastern France.
Vendeuil Caply (Proto-Merovingian Necropolis, France)
This site explores the transition from Roman customs to early medieval practices. Intact inhumations with hints of Charon's obols (coins placed in the mouths of the deceased) reflect the evolving burial traditions and socio-religious beliefs as the region transformed from a Roman vicus to an early medieval settlement.
Italy
Isola Sacra (Italy)
The necropolis at Isola Sacra serves as a key to understanding the multicultural tapestry of Portus Romae, the harbor city of ancient Rome. With graves dating from the 1st to the 3rd centuries AD, the buried middle-class traders and workers from diverse origins exemplify a microcosm of the Roman Empire's cosmopolitan nature.
Bioarchaeological Contributions to Ancient Demography
Bioarchaeological studies conducted at these sites offer a glimpse into the past, unveiling stories of individual lives, population structures, and cultural exchanges from different epochs. These investigations reveal:
- Health patterns: Evidence of diseases, nutritional status, and injury helps reconstruct living conditions
- Mobility indicators: Isotope analysis reveals individual movement patterns and migration
- Demographic profiles: Age and sex distributions inform about population structure
- Genetic diversity: DNA studies illuminate ancestry and population mixing
The combination of archaeological context, osteological analysis, and genetic information provides a comprehensive view of ancient populations that traditional historical sources alone cannot offer.
Conclusion
These archaeological discoveries collectively demonstrate that European population structure has been shaped by millennia of movement, exchange, and cultural interaction. From Roman military frontiers to trading hubs, from provincial capitals to rural settlements, the evidence points to societies that were far more mobile and interconnected than previously thought.
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